Publics Fear of Crime and Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Publics Fear of Crime and Media - Essay Example Common media refer televisions, radios, telephones and newspapers. The media are powerful way of getting messages across to citizens, and some 95% of it is reportedly the prime source for all types of information ("Fear of Crime, " John Howard Society, 1999). Media are always involved with audience participation, hence they have various effects on the public viewers (Krippendorff, 1986). Channels and forms. Media are regarded as channels of communication through which messages flow. They are a form of communication produced by a few people for the consumption of many people (Mass Literacy, 1996). In mass media, there are two main categories: print media and electronic media. Their content may overlap, but they differ in their delivery method and the subject area they cover (Krippendorff, 1986). Print media disseminate printed matter. Examples are newspapers, periodicals, magazines, books, newsletters, advertising, memos, and business forms ("Print media," APT, 2007). Public press are the ones responsible for the gathering and publishing in newspaper forms or magazines ("Print media," Farlex, 2007). Electronic media, on the other hand, include television, radio, internet, CD-ROMs, DVD, and other mediums of information transmission not printed in papers. They are most found in the data management, communication networks, Internet and World Wide Web subjects ("Electronic media," Business Dictionary.Com, 2007). Comparing these two media, print media are more likely to be described as factual, while electronic media are more on visual aids to convey information. One of the forms where people get direct news information in electronic media is through television and radio news reporting. In print media, the news information is readily made available () Newsreporting and its Nature News is often reported by various mediums, such as newspapers, television, radio programs, and now in modern practice, in wires services and the websites (Stephens, 2007). Commonly these days, people get their information about crime from the major source which is the media, particularly more on news reporting. Carole Rich, author of Writing and Reporting News: A Coaching Method (2000) cited five traditional categories generally employed for news reporting. These are: understanding the news, collecting information, constructing stories, understanding media issues, and applying the techniques. Without any of these, a failure to convey news information might take place. Societies seemingly revolve around news information. This is usually what set people's mood upon their daily routine, as means of awareness to the happenings around them for their security (Stephens, 2007). Commonly, news must contain the answers for who, what, when, where, why, and how question of a certain news that people rely on media people to provide them updates on issues within their area, even to international concerns (Fuller, 1996). This suggests that for any possible perception of the viewers to the news information, media people inevitably partake in it. Evidences Shaping Public's Fear of Crime Media companies' interest comes first before viewers' security. Some psychological studies conducted had formulated the theory that mass media affect how their audiences think and behave (Potter 1999). This is because

Research Methods Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Methods - Research Paper Example According to Zwass, electronic commerce is defined as â€Å"the sharing of business information, maintaining of business relationships, and conducting of business transactions by means of telecommunications networks†. The electronic commerce activities are inter-organisational processes of market-based sell-buy relationships and collaboration, consumer oriented activities, and inter-organisational processes that support them (Zwass). The innovation diffusion theory by Rogers has been widely applied as a theoretical framework to analyse adoption of technology. The framework identified five factors which influence adoption of technology in organisations. These factors are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. Relative advantage is defined as â€Å"the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes†. Compatibility is defined as â€Å"the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consisten t with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters†. Complexity is defined as â€Å"the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use†. ... This study therefore seeks to identify the factors that influence adoption of e-commerce in organisations using Rogers’ model. Research Questions 1. What is the effect of relative advantage on adoption of e-commerce? 2. Does compatibility affect adoption of e-commerce? 3. What is the effect of complexity on adoption of e-commerce? 4. Does trialability affect adoption of e-commerce? 5. What is the effect of observability on adoption of e-commerce? Research Objectives The objectives of this study are: 1. To examine the effect of relative advantage on adoption of e-commerce. 2. To determine the effect of compatibility on adoption of e-commerce. 3. To assess the effect of complexity on adoption of e-commerce. 4. To examine the effect of trialability on adoption of e-commerce. 5. To determine the effect of observability on adoption of e-commerce. Significance of the Study This study is very important to organisations in Saudi Arabia as well as other Arab countries. The results of t his study will be very valuable in informing the management of these retail stores on how a number of factors will influence adoption of e-commerce for those who wish to do so. The study is also important to government agencies in charge of policy-making decisions. The study will provide valuable recommendations on how regulation of e-commerce should be carried out based on the results on the adoption factors of e-commerce. The policy recommendations will therefore help come up with solutions that will address the challenges of e-commerce among retailers. Researchers will also find this study valuable source information as a reference material as well as act as a basis for

Health and social care unit 7 Essay Example for Free

Health and social care unit 7 Essay Behaviourist approach, people believe that behaviour has been learned when we are younger and effects us later on in life e.g. if a child is too strictly potty trained then may effect them later on in life, and could have OCD Freud believed this. Classical conditioning is a theory discovered by Pavlov a Russian physiologist he worked on dogs and the digestive system before this study people believed that saliva was produced when food in in the mouth but then Pavlov found out it happened when the dog saw the food, possibly smelling the food. Pavlov used classical conditioning, his experiment was used with a dog. When the bell rings the dog doesnt do anything until after a while Pavlov gives the dog a treat every time the bell is rung so every time the bell rings now the dog will start salivating. This is how systematic desensitisation works, people associate a fear or a phobia by something they may of seen the say that an accident may have occurred causing the phobia e.g. if a man had a car accident and the car that crashed in to him was blue, the man may have a fear of blue now because of this (the dog learning that food comes with the ring of the bell) psychologists can help this by slowly showing the man that blue isnt scary by talking about the colour, seeing the word written on paper then seeing the colour and being comfortable with it, this is then cured of the fear this is called the Hierarchy of fear. This reaction cant be learned so he called this unconditioned response. This theory is what psychologists use to look at phobias, it shows that there is always something too set a behaviour off e.g. if something bad happened in your life and the most thing you remember is a poster on the wall or even a song you listened to that night, you could develop a phobia of that poster or song. The best way to help this is to find the cause and ask the patient to make a list of their worst fear about that phobia. This is where operant conditioning comes in, this is used to help peoples frame of mind, they use reinforcement techniques and create more appropriate behaviour. â€Å"Let’s say that at your house whenever someone flushes the toilet the shower gets crazy hot. After a while, you learn to jump out of the shower stream whenever you hear the toilet flush. A guest at your house won’t know that this happens, so she will jump out of the stream of water when it gets hot but not when the toilet flushes.† http://instruction.blackhawk.edu 20:39 18/12/12

Why trade barriers need to be reduced

Why trade barriers need to be reduced Over the last thirty years, the environment in which international business operates has become subject to the forces of globalisation and increasing world integration. One might even say that globalisation is the buzzword of economics today. Consequently, to have the world as one, the need to reduce trade barriers between countries arises. To support this view, the WTOs Doha Development Agenda (also known as the Doha Round) states that the non-agricultural market access (NAMA) negotiating groups mandate is to reduce, or as appropriate, eliminate tariffs, including the reduction or elimination of tariff peaks, high tariffs, and tariff escalation, as well as non-tariff barriers, in particular on products of export interest to developing countries. The economic importance of non-tariff measures (NTMs) has thus, become the main concern of many countries around the world. Moreovever, with the steady decrease in worldwide tariffs accomplished in the various rounds of multilateral trade negotiations over the past several decades, the attention of both policy-makers and economists has turned to the role played by non-tariff methods of protection. Especially for the purpose of negotiations, it is important that the impacts of these NTMs be quantified. Yet this has proven difficult. Variation across countries in product prices is due to many factors of which NTMS are just one. In addition, there are many types of NTMs namely quotas, non-automatic licensing, bans, prior authorization for protection of human health, local content requirements, among others which defy the development of a simple uniform method to convert the effect of these quantity controls into tariff-equivalents. However, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) which is an international body with the purpose of promoting free trade by persuading countries to abolish import tariffs and other barriers, has played an important role in the setting up of the non-tariff measures. However, the mushrooming of non-tariff measures globally, may also have adverse effects on the economy of a country and the government has to take appropriate actions to protect trade. 1.0 World Trade Organisation 1.1 What is the WTO? The WTO is the only global international organisation dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the worlds trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. The systems overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possible which partly means removing obstacles. 1.2 Brief History of the WTO The World Trade Organisation became operational in 1995. One of the youngest of the international organisations, the WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established after World War II. GATT and the WTO have helped to create a strong and prosperous trading system contributing to unprecedented growth. The exceptional growth in world trade during the past 50 years is as follows: Merchandise exports grew on average by 6% annually and total trade has increased 22 times from 1950 till 2000. The WTO developed after several rounds of negotiations under GATT. The first rounds dealt mainly with tariff reductions but later, negotiations included other areas such as anti-dumping and non-tariff measures. The last round which led to the WTOs creation was the Uruguay Round. The following table illustrates the different round which took place and the issues which were discussed. 1.3 Functions of the WTO The WTO can be viewed from different angles. Apart from being an organisation for trade liberalisation, it is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements. The WTO is also a place for settlement of trade disputes which is rules-based. Hence, the main functions of the WTO are described below: 1.3.1 Administering WTO trade agreements 1.3.2 Forum for trade negotiations The core activity of the WTO is to negotiate between the members on how to decrease trade barriers worldwide. Thus, the WTO provides the forum for negotiations among its members concerning their multilateral trade relations in matters dealt with under the agreements and a framework for the implementation of the results of such negotiations, as may be decided by the Ministerial Conference. However, it is must be note that although the main objectives of the WTO is to reduce trade barriers between countries and liberalise trade, the WTO will maintain the trade barriers in circumstances like protection of consumers and prevention of diseases. 1.3.3 Handling trade disputes Handling trade disputes is the third important aspect of the work of the WTO. Even trade agreements which have been meticulously negotiated may create conflicts between governments. Hence, the best way to settle these differences is through some neutral procedures based upon a legal framework. This is the reason for which WTO agreements exist. 1.3.4 Monitoring trade policies The WTO agreements are negotiated and signed by the worlds trading nations. These documents provide the legal aspects of international trading. They are mainly contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within the agreed limits. Although these agreements are negotiated and signed by governments, the aim is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business while also allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. The main purpose of this system is to help easy flow of trade and prevent side effects. This is important so as to provide a better economic development of a country. Moreover, these rules need to be transparent and predictable. 1.3.5 Technical assistance and training for developing countries The WTO provides guidance to countries on complex issues. It also provides support and training to developing countries in order to help them to fully integrate the system. 1.3.6 Cooperation with other international organisations Along with other international firms and organiations, the WTO is constantly looking for new measures about how to reduce tariffs and promote equal trading rights among all nations. 2.0 Non-tariff measures It is widely recognised that non-tariff measures (NTMs) are more economically harmful to the world trading system and individual countries than tariffs (Bosworth, 1999). While tariffs have been reduced through multilateral trade negotiations, NTMs have emerged as alternative measures to protect domestic industries, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s in response to the drastic tariff reductions in developed countries. Tariff reduction or elimination would become no doubt worthless if alternative trade impeding measures prevent trade liberalisation and deteriorate social welfare. In fact, the WTO is actively identifying and analysing non-tariff measures (NTMs) which are the less apparent restrictions on the free flow of trade. Although the identification and analysis of NTMs has significantly evolved, understanding their nature and trade effects remains a challenge for analysts and policymakers. Moreover, it is important to highlight that the OECD has engaged itself to use the available information in trying to increase free flow trade and implement policies in reducing tariff measures. 2.1 Definition of NTMs Despite increasing concerns on NTM issues becoming a serious impediment to international trade, there is no consensus on a definition of the explicit range of NTMs. NTMs are composed of whichever measures other than tariffs that distort international trade, regardless of whether they are border or internal types of measures. NTMs are defined as policy measures, other than ordinary customs tariffs, that can potentially have an economic effect on international trade in goods, changing quantities traded, or prices or both. The term NTM has been widely used in the GATT and the UNCTAD. Baldwin (1970) defines NTMs as any measure (public or private) that causes internationally traded goods and services, or resources devoted to the production of these goods and services, to be allocated in such a way as to reduce potential real world income. The East African Communitys working definition of NTMs is quantitative restrictions and specific limitations that act as obstacles to trade (World Bank 2008: iii). NTM definitions are generally residually defined: any trade barrier that is not a tariff is a non-tariff barrier. This creates two problems: the rationale for trade barriers is not discussed; and the number of NTMs becomes very high and their nature diverse.Based upon Laird and Vossenaar (1991), NTMs are classified according to the instant impact of the measure. The measures identified are listed below: Measures to control the volume of imports. Measures to control the price of imported goods. Monitoring measures, for example price and volume investigations and surveillance. Production and export measures. Technical barriers. NTMs may serve legitimate social objectives or they may be instruments of protectionism. These two options may even be mixed as a NTM may be designed to serve a legitimate objective, but vested interest may influence to policy process to affect either the design or the implementation of the NTM to their advantage. Import quotas function much like tariffs and are an example of an illegitimate NTM. Food safety standards are an example of a potentially legitimate NTM. The standards are set to safeguard public health and if that is their true function they are legitimate. They may, however, be misused, for instance, by requiring costly test procedures for imports. In that case, they are illegitimate and should be either removed or redesigned or be implemented in a non-discriminatory way. 2.2 Non-tariff measures in WTO trade policies reviews Regulations and other non-tariff barriers are rapidly overtaking tariffs as the main obstacle to trade. The WTO has a unique instrument that could be used to shed much needed light on these measures. The WTO secretariats trade policy reviews (TPRs) contain long sections on the tariffs, subsidies and anti-dumping duties in place in the country under scrutiny. Dealing with these instruments is a gratifying since it is relatively easy to calculate average tariffs, add up subsidies and count anti-dumping measures. Any protectionist intent or harmful effects for the economy are immediately understood by most readers. The WTOs TPRs give short shrift to regulatory trade barriers. Their treatment is generally short, superficial and unsystematic. This take-it-easy approach is becoming increasingly problematic. Tariffs and subsidies are on a long-term downward trajectory (despite the current crisis), whereas non-trade regulation with serious effects on trade is abounding. It is time for the TPRs address this challenge. A starting point would be a well-organised and comprehensive overview of the regulations in place and future legislative intentions. In order to permit comparison across time and countries, this should be complemented with such quantitative and standardised descriptions of regulatory barriers as can be assembled at reasonable cost. If reliable analysis of trade and welfare effects of regulatory barriers is available, it should also be included in the TPRs. The most important aspect, however, should be a thorough and critical examination of policy-making processes. TPRs should report on a list of key policy-making characteristics and compare them to best practice standards. The reviews should, for instance, offer a clear description of how countries arrive at sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures. This could be done by focusing on the procedural provisions that WTO Members take to implement their obligations under the SPS Agreement. In sum, TPRs could be an important tool for tackling excessive trade barriers arising from non-tariff measures without having to go through dispute settlement. It could harness the power of transparency triggering international and domestic pressure to remove unjustifiable barriers and to improve decision-making procedures so that inappropriate measures are not taken in the first place. But this would require giving more authority and resources to the WTO secretariat. Ideally, TPRs on non-tariff measures would be published as a separate report. If the WTO addresses the transparency challenge, it can facilitate unilateral liberalisation and prepare a better starting ground for future multilateral negotiations. While enhanced treatment of non-tariff measures needs special attention, a broader change is required. TPRs should be transformed from a diplomatic exercise in Geneva into a transparency instrument that involves the stakeholders in the country under review. This implies that the process of writing reviews should become open to public scrutiny and allow for improved stakeholder participation. Such changes would facilitate greater analytical depth and critical rigour, and they would instil a sense of domestic ownership. A further step would be to present and discuss the TPRs in the country under review. Success with this enabling long-term agenda could give meaning and energy to the WTO. It might even go some way in compensating for the damage to the prestige of the WTO resulting from the Doha quagmire. 3.0 Classification of Non-Tariffs measures There are several types of non-tariff measures imposed by trading countries. According to the typology of NTMs drawn up by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), these include non-tariff charges, quantitative restrictions, government participation in trade and similar restrictive policies, customs procedures and administrative policies, and finally, technical standards (UNCTAD 1994). These measures increase the cost of production for companies serving in foreign markets, raising entry barriers with higher up-front costs and diminishing the ability of firms to compete in the process. The costs depend on the stringency of measures adopted, the required speed of implementation, the nature of the supply chain and the technical measures already in place in the exporters domestic market (OECD 2001). Thus, middle-income developing countries that already have relatively stringent technical and health standards, for example, might not experience a very high cost of adjustment vis-Ã  -vis the NTMs adopted in developed export markets. Studies that examine the extent of NTM application in different countries often employ a classification system to distinguish among the myriad measures. One classification is the UNCTADs Coding System of Trade Control Measures. This system segregates NTMs into: price control measures; finance measures; automatic licensing measures; quantity control measures; monopolistic measures; and technical measures. Sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS), as well as technical barriers to trade (TBT), fall under the last group (technical measures), and are often found under the subcategories on product characteristics requirements and testing, and inspection and quarantine requirements. The World Trade Organization (WTO), for its part, maintains the Negotiating Group on Market Access for Non-agricultural Products (NAMA) Inventory of Non-tariff Measures. This list groups NTMs into: government participation in trade and restrictive practices tolerated by the government; customs and administrative entry procedures; technical barriers to trade; sanitary and phytosanitary measures; specific limitations; and charges on imports. The final source for the core NTMs Database is the World Trade Organizations TPR. Measures are compiled from those mentioned in the Trade Policies and Practices by Measure section of the TPR. Within this section, most nontariff measures are summarised in the introduction followed by a more detailed description of the types of measures and the products affected. Donnelly and Manifold (2006) examined the United States Trade Representatives National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers, the European Unions Market Access Database, and the WTOs Trade Policy Reviews to compile a list of non-tariff measures reported by 53 countries. Because these three sources do not use a standard classification system, the authors made their own list of 15 categories. These are: anticompetitive practices/competition policy; intellectual property rights; corruption; investment-related measures; customs procedures; sanitary and phytosanitary measures; export-related measures; services; standards, testing, certification and labeling; government procurement; import licensing; state-trading; import prohibitions; taxes; and import quotas. 3.1 Analysis of the NTMs 3.1.1 Anticompetitive practices/competition policy These measures allocate exclusive or special preferences or privileges to one or more limited group of economic operators. Hence, certain agencies may benefits from the exclusive importation of a range of products. An example will be the importation of salt and tobacco which are reserved for the respective state trading companies. Another example is that crude petroleum is imported exclusively be the government. Moreover, for some products, the imported need to transact with the national service as some product need to insured by the government and it should also require the use of national transport like ships, etc. 3.1.2 Measures to increase price of imports Measures used to implement the control of prices of imported articles in order to support the domestic price of certain products when the import price of these goods are lower; establish the domestic price of certain products because of price fluctuation in domestic markets, or price instability in a foreign market; and counteract the damage resulting from the occurrence of unfair foreign trade practices. It includes the use of reference price mechanisms, variable levies, antidumping duties and countervailing measures. Tariff-type measures such as tariff quotas and seasonal tariffs also are usually intended to increase import prices under given circumstances. Voluntary export price restraints fall under this broad category of intent. Important components under this heading are mainly: Administrative pricing Voluntary export price restraints Variable charges Antidumping measures Countervailing measures Safeguard duties Seasonal duties 3.1.3 Import prohibitions Quantity control measures are aimed at restraining the quantity of goods that can be imported, regardless of whether they come from different sources or one specific supplier. These measures can take the form of restrictive licensing, fixing of a predetermined quota or through prohibitions The export restraint agreements consist of voluntary export restraints. This mainly covers the measure employed for the administration of bilateral agreements under the Multi- Fibre Arrangement and, more recently, the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing and it also promotes an Orderly Marketing Agreements. An import licence is not granted automatically. The licence may either be issued on a discretionary basis or may require specific criteria to be met before it is granted. The uses of the products need also to be specified. E.g. Licence to import steel is granted only if it is used for the construction of a bridge. Non economic licences can also be granted for religious, moral, cultural or even political reasons. E.g. Imports of alcoholic beverages are permitted only by hotels and restaurants. A quota is a restriction of importation of specified products through the setting of a maximum quantity or value authorized for import. We have different types of quotas; Global quota Global Quotas are established on the basis of the total quantity or value of imports of specific products. It is classified in 2 sub section; i.e. Unallocated quotas which uses the system of fist come first serve (e.g. Imports of wheat is subject to a maximum limit of 20 million tons per year from any country) and Quotas allocated to exporting countries whereby the quotas are pre-allocated among exporters (e.g. Imports of wheat is subject to a maximum limit of 20 million tons per year allocated to exporting countries according to the average export performance of the past three years). Bilateral quotas Bilateral quotas are for a specific exporting country. E.g. a maximum of 10 million tons of sugar may be imported from a certain Country. Seasonal quotas Seasonal quotas are established for a given period of the year, usually set for certain agricultural goods when domestic harvest is in abundance. An example will be quota for import of strawberries is established for imports from March to June each year. Quotas linked with purchase of local goods It is the percentages bought by the local importer. Quotas for non-economic reasons Non economic quotas enclose religious, moral or cultural and political aspects of the quota. Tariff Rate Quotas It is a system of multiple tariff rates applicable to a same product: the lower rates apply up to a certain value or volume of imports, and the higher rates are charged on imports which exceed this amount. Quotas linked with domestic production Compulsory linkage of imports (of materials or parts) with local production Example: Import of coal is limited to the amount used in the previous year in the production of electricity. Other criteria like prohibition, suspension and different types agreement of certain products are also included under this heading. 3.1.4 Taxes other than customs tariff Tax Measures, other than tariffs measures that increase the cost of imports in a similar manner, i.e. by fixed percentage or by a fixed amount. Customs Surcharges, Service charges like (Custom inspection, processing and servicing fees and Merchandise handling or storing fees), and additional taxes are the different types of tax that a certain type of products need to abide. 3.1.5 Finance measures Financial measures are intended to regulate the access to and cost of foreign exchange for imports and define the terms of payment. They can also contribute to increase import cost just like tariff measure. Advance payment whereby a sum of money is paid at the time the deal has been sealed and multiple exchange rate falls under this category. 3.1.6 Trade-related investment measures This section can be divided into Local content measures and trade balancing measures. Local content measures Requirement to use certain minimum levels of locally made component, restricting the level of imported components. E.g. Imports of clothing is allowed only if more than 50% of the materials used are originating from the importing country. Trade balancing measures Measures limiting the purchase or use of imported products by an enterprise to an amount related to the volume or value of local products that it exports. E.g. A company may import materials and other products only up to 80% of its export earning of the previous year. 3.1.7 Export related measures Subsidies may be directly applied to output or value added, or they may be indirectly applied, i.e. paid to material or other inputs into the production process. They may arise from payments or the non-collection of taxes that would otherwise be due. Restrictions by mean of taxes or prohibitions may also be imposed on production or exports. 4.0 Consequences of NTMs 4.1 Problems caused by the mushrooming of NTMs Bora (2003) identified three main consequences of the mushrooming the NTMs. The overall level of trade is lower than it should have been. Internationally prices are not at the levels dictated by the law of one price. The elasticity of trade flows to price changes is dampened. The first two points are basic to the economists rationale for trade, namely increasing efficiency. The last point, namely the dampened responsiveness of trade flows to price changes, is of major interest. Three issues have been identified and there are: The first issue is that, our global economy today has external imbalances of unprecedented size in absolute terms. The preferred means to resolve these imbalances is through exchange rate flexibility. At the same time, it is commonly observed that exchange rates tend to overshoot as the adjustment process unfolds. A dampening of trade elasticities would logically work to slow or weaken the adjustment of external imbalances. Accordingly, imbalances might persist for longer periods and potentially reach larger dimensions while the exchange rate swings needed to correct those imbalances would be of even greater amplitude. Turning the argument around, increasing the responsiveness of trade flows to prices would cause more rapid external adjustment of imbalances to exchange rate corrections and thus reduce the chance of large imbalances arising in the first place. Without going so far as to make judgments concerning the quantitative significance of NTMs in the current problems of global a djustment, a proliferation of such measures might well be a contributing factor. Second, a slower response of trade flows to prices is effectively the same as a reduction in similarity of domestic and foreign goods and services. That is, there is an implicit reduction of the cross-price elasticity of imports vis-Ã  -vis domestically produced goods. In turn, this means that price competition from imports is lower than it otherwise would be. NTMs that reduce the elasticity of imports thus not only convey protection to domestic producers from imports, they create increased monopolistic pricing power domestically, with implications for domestic policy. For example, in response to trade liberalization, governments appear to have been willing to see greater domestic industrial consolidation in the belief this would promote export competitiveness, implicitly counting on competition in the domestic market being provided by trade. But if proliferating NTMs reduce the competition flowing from trade, we get the worst of all worlds which are limited domestic competition and ineffective trade competition. This is perhaps one of the factors prompting civil society response to globalization which targets growing corporate power. The third issue is that the gains from trade liberalization derive from the responsiveness of imports to changes in relative prices through tariff reductions, a dampened price response will lead to disappointing results from trade liberalization compared to expectations which are calibrated according to assumed stronger responses. 4.2 Consequence of UNCTAD and WTO decisions on NTMs It is inevitable that there is a certain arbitrariness in such a classification. For example, most measures, including technical barriers, have price and quantity effects. A glossary of individual non-tariff measures, derived from Laird and Yeats (1990), and based on the above five broad categories of NTMs. OECD (1994), dealing only with agriculture, lists some 150 measures or bodies administering country-specific schemes. In the UNCTAD classification these would fall within the more limited, but more general, list of individual measures, since many are simply national descriptions for a widely used basic measure. Typically, the objectives or motives for using NTMs range from the long-term desire to promote certain social and economic objectives, including broad economic, industrial or regional development, to shorter term purposes such as balance of payments (BOP) support or action to protect a specific sector from import surges or from dumped or subsidized imports. Price or volume control measures or subsidies have been used In any type of liberalization simulation, it may be important to look realistically at the likelihood of such measures being removed. It is unlikely that Governments will remove permanent controls on technical barriers to trade or on trade in arms, drugs, pornography and so forth, although technical barriers may become more harmonized. However, support for industrial development can be achieved in more open economies supported by improved macroeconomic management and realistic exchange rates. Furthermore, Governments seem attached to support for specific sectors (sometimes in key political constituencies) by means of hidden subsidies through government procurement and technology development (e.g. aircraft), but so far international disciplines on the use of such measures remain relatively weak. As a consequence, even after the Uruguay Round, there are still important peaks in sectoral protection in most countries, sometimes in the same sector, for example textiles and clothing. It is important to realize that GATT (including GATT 1994, negotiated in the Uruguay Round) does not ban the use of all NTMs. Laird and Vossenaar (1991) argue that after the Preamble and the first three articles of the GATT, which deal with the overall objectives of GATT, most-favoured-nation (MFN) treatment, tariff reductions and national treatment, one enters the realm of exceptions and sets of rules which deal at least as much with how and when protection may be imposed, especially by means of non-tariff measures, as they do with liberalization. The Tokyo Round and Uruguay Round Agreements are a further extension of this idea, although the Uruguay Round results should see a reduction in the use of some important NTMs. For example, ERAs, the MFA, export subsidies and farm production support. 4.3 NTM problems faced by Indonesian Exporters Indonesia may face NTM problems with countries like US, Japan and European countries, which are their main destination for trading. The products selected will be: Agricultural product (mainly palm oil and fisheries) Textile and garment product Wood product (mainly plywood) Electronic (parts) Exporting to the US Footwear and garment product, Furniture Parts thereof; Electronics and Parts and Natural Rubber Latex; among other are the most common commodities exported to the US. However the Indonasian exporters have been facing major problem due to the non tariff measure. In 2002, the US restricted the import of shrimps as the argued that not the proper method of harvesting was used and the sanction was imposed against the background of sea turtle conservation and shrimp import. In the year 2004, Several Asian countries shrimp commodities had been charged with US antidumping regulation. In steel and rubber products, the US government to collect antidumping fine from foreign competitors and disburse them to the affected US firms. This was protested by Indonesia and other countries in WTO panel meeting in 2002. Indonesia assumed that such trade policy

Success in The Old Man and the Sea :: Ernest Hemmingway

Success Comes in Many Forms Obtaining a goal can bring success to one’s outer â€Å"world† and to one’s inner spirit, the mind and soul. An achievement may bring recognition and respect from surrounding peers. It can also encourage one’s self esteem as well as give them more courage. In Ernest Hemmingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, Santiago receives outer, material formed success by earning the respect of his fellow peers and by attaining more physical strength. He also receives inner, spiritual formed success by gaining more self esteem. First, the old man receives outer success by earning the respect and appreciation of the boy and the other fishermen. The boy is speaking to the old man in his shack after the old man’s long journey, â€Å"You must get well fast for there is much that I can learn and you can teach me everything† (Hemmingway 126). The boy appreciates the fact that the old man spends time to teach him about fishing. He respects him a great deal for he knows that the old man is very wise and is a magnificent fisherman. The fellow fishermen also show respect towards the old man as they note the size of the fish after the old man returns home, â€Å"What a fish it was, there has never been such a fish† (123). The men admire the fact that the old man has caught the biggest fish that they have seen. Many fishermen resented Santiago at first, however their opinion changed once they realized what the old man has gone through. Being admired by others plays a major role in improving oneâ⠂¬â„¢s morale. Secondly, Santiago experiences material success because of the augmented physical strength he attains from the obstacles that he is forced to face. The old man is walking home to his shack after he returns from his strenuous journey, â€Å"He had to sit down five times before he reached his shack† (121). The old man is exhausted from his trip because he had spent so much energy catching the fish. Plenty of strength must have been gained from the exertion of this much energy. During the shark attacks, Santiago is optimistic about what good the bleeding from his hands will bring. â€Å"The bleeding may keep the left from cramping† (111). The old man is so strong that he uses the bleeding pain to suffocate a different source of pain. Not only that, but just the fact of keeping a positive attitude about a situation like this is a great accomplishment which can only be obtained from strength. Success in The Old Man and the Sea :: Ernest Hemmingway Success Comes in Many Forms Obtaining a goal can bring success to one’s outer â€Å"world† and to one’s inner spirit, the mind and soul. An achievement may bring recognition and respect from surrounding peers. It can also encourage one’s self esteem as well as give them more courage. In Ernest Hemmingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, Santiago receives outer, material formed success by earning the respect of his fellow peers and by attaining more physical strength. He also receives inner, spiritual formed success by gaining more self esteem. First, the old man receives outer success by earning the respect and appreciation of the boy and the other fishermen. The boy is speaking to the old man in his shack after the old man’s long journey, â€Å"You must get well fast for there is much that I can learn and you can teach me everything† (Hemmingway 126). The boy appreciates the fact that the old man spends time to teach him about fishing. He respects him a great deal for he knows that the old man is very wise and is a magnificent fisherman. The fellow fishermen also show respect towards the old man as they note the size of the fish after the old man returns home, â€Å"What a fish it was, there has never been such a fish† (123). The men admire the fact that the old man has caught the biggest fish that they have seen. Many fishermen resented Santiago at first, however their opinion changed once they realized what the old man has gone through. Being admired by others plays a major role in improving oneâ⠂¬â„¢s morale. Secondly, Santiago experiences material success because of the augmented physical strength he attains from the obstacles that he is forced to face. The old man is walking home to his shack after he returns from his strenuous journey, â€Å"He had to sit down five times before he reached his shack† (121). The old man is exhausted from his trip because he had spent so much energy catching the fish. Plenty of strength must have been gained from the exertion of this much energy. During the shark attacks, Santiago is optimistic about what good the bleeding from his hands will bring. â€Å"The bleeding may keep the left from cramping† (111). The old man is so strong that he uses the bleeding pain to suffocate a different source of pain. Not only that, but just the fact of keeping a positive attitude about a situation like this is a great accomplishment which can only be obtained from strength.

A Christmas Carol Essay -- Charles Dickens

It was a chilly nineteenth century Christmas Eve, and everybody throughout England were in a festive joyous mood, prepared for Christmas. Everybody except Scrooge who thought Christmas was a waste of money. Scrooge was money hungry, solitary, insensible, uncaring and selfish to say the least. Well he was not completely uncaring about everything. He did seem to care a bit too much about money. He cared so deeply about money that he did not feel heat or cold. No warm or wintry weather effected him. No amount of rain or snow could keep him from going to work. Slowly nature had reformed his features to resemble his heart. He had a pointed chin, shriveled cheeks, dim scary eyes with patches of black underneath, and thin blue lips from which a rough low voice was produced. The only one who ever greeted him was his cheerful, golly, and merry nephew. But his kindness only caused Scrooge's hatred towards him to deepen. They had many discussions about Christmas. It always ended with Scrooge ge tting very mad and using the word humbug in every other sentence. His nephew however always left in the same happy mood without saying one heated word to Scrooge. During his life, Scrooge got a visit from 4 ghosts. The first one was his deceased friend Jacob Marley. That ghost scared Scrooge out of his wits. Then there was the Ghost of Christmas Past, - a supernatural figure with white hair but not a single wrinkle in its face. The Ghost of Christmas Present, a giant who is very golly and is dressed quite elegantly in a green robe. The last one the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come. He is a scary phantom. All Scrooge can see is the black robe covering him. Scrooge can?t see his face either. The phantom is the scariest because it is mute and never says a w... ...ck home and scrooge immediately falls asleep. When he wakes up and sees that it is Christmas morning he starts jumping and running all about. While he is struck with this great amount of excitement, he shaves, irons his best pair of clothes, buys some poor families a big turkey, gives money to the beggars, and goes to his nephew?s house where they are celebrating Christmas. The nephew opens the door to Scrooge and everyone is hearty. He cares for all and is always full of merriment. His laughter is contagious, and he becomes quite popular among kids and adults too. The next day Scrooge highers his clerk?s salary. The clerk is happy and the Scrooge becomes very close to the clerk?s sons and daughters. Tim survives and Scrooge is like a second father to him. During the rest of his life Scrooge gives many poverty-stricken and penniless people money. All ends well.

New Product Launch

NEW PRODUCT LAUNCH: UB GROUP – SOFT DRINK â€Å"MIST† COMPANY OVERVIEW United Breweries Limited (UBL) – has assumed undisputed market leadership with a national market share in excess of 50%. Through a process of aggressive acquisition and market penetration, The UB Group today controls 60% of the total manufacturing capacity for Beer in India. The flagship brand, Kingfisher is now sold in over 52 countries worldwide having received many accolades for its quality. MACRO-ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS Political Factors The political forces affect the beer industry to a large extent. The rates of the beer in various parts of the country are affected by the taxes and duties applied by the Govt. The political forces also affect the pricing of the beer by lowering the duties or deregulating the distribution channel. This leads to lower margins for the distribution channel partners. But, as 75% of the Indian market is covered by two players, there hasn’t been a reduction in the margins of the manufacturers. The taxation policies also affect the consumption patterns. Economic Factors India is home to nearly one-sixth of the global population and is one of the most attractive consumer markets in the world today. The total worth of Indian Beer Market is Rs 750 crore. This market is expected to expand by 39% by 2010. The beer consumption has been growing at a CAGR of 7% over last nine years. India provides attractive profit margins due to the consolidated nature of the industry. Various research studies have shown that a rise in the income levels has a direct positive effect on beer consumption. The National Council for Applied Economic Research (NCAER) projects India's ‘very rich', ‘consuming' and ‘climbers' classes to grow at a CAGR of 15 per cent, 10 per cent and 2 per cent respectively. Thus, India gives ample opportunities for the UB Group to grow. Social Factors A deep-seated traditional social aversion to alcohol consumption has been a traditional feature of the Indian society. However, as urban consumers become more exposed to western lifestyles, through overseas travel and the media, their attitude towards alcohol is relaxing. Social habits are undergoing a transformation as mixed drinks are becoming more popular. The greatest evidence of this trend is the increase in beer consumption among women. More and more women are consuming beer – the penetration in metropolitan areas is almost twice as high as the penetration in other large cities – implying that the greater tolerance towards alcohol consumption in metropolitan areas facilitates the consumption of beer. With increasing urbanisation, this acceptance is only going to rise. As a consequence of the high birth rates prevalent until the 1990s, a large proportion of the Indian population is in the age group of 20-34 years. This age group is the most appropriate target for beer marketers. This population trend will give a further boost to the growth of beer consumption in India. Technological Beer industry is not technology specific. As the UB group is one of the oldest players in the market, they have achieved economies of scale. Thus, technological factor is not of great importance for the beer market. SWOT ANALYSIS PORTER’S FIVE FORCES MODEL Threat of new Entrants – Low In India, beer industry is growing with 11% CAGR making it attractive for new players. Strong brands like Kingfisher and Hayward’s which are already established and have strong brand recall will make it tough for new entrants and they are expected to struggle to expand their consumer base as they try to penetrate the beer market in India. Foreign brewers have been eyeing the Indian market for some years now since India is widely acknowledged to be the last untapped big growth market. Several international brewers have built brand associations and are marketing their brands aggressively through various point-of- sale promotions throughout their distribution networks. But with strong players in the market any new entrant will face problems of: a) Economies of scale – For example benefit associated with bulk purchases and sales – create high barriers to the national and global markets ) Cost of entry – For example investment in technology, costs associated with sales c) Distribution channel For example ease of access for competitors d) Government Legislations -Introduction of new laws might weaken have adverse effects e) Differentiation – For example certain brands that cannot be copied f) Supplier power – Possibility of forward integration by supplier Bargaining power of suppliers â₠¬â€œ Low Due to increasing costs of raw material and decreasing cost of barley suppliers, bargaining power of suppliers was high but by doing backward integration, done by acquiring Maltex Malsters Ltd. and shifting their production of beer on malt the company has achieved a hold on its raw material and considerably reduced supplier strength and dependency. Company has also entered into collaboration with Government of Punjab and Haryana for supply of its raw material. Bargaining power of buyers – Moderate This factor measures the extent to which customers are successful in forcing prices down, or securing high quality or more service at the same price. Customers tend to be powerful when the quantities they purchase form a large portion of the seller's total sales. Buyers do have a very clear understanding about the quality and as there are very few players in the market the customer cannot influence the price in any significant way. But while this is true a decline in consumable income shifts consumer preferences away from premium brands to lower-priced brands since the switching costs is low. Due to this the bargaining power of buyer tends to increase. Threat of substitutes – Moderate India is predominantly a spirits market and beer has traditionally been a minority preference for those who consume beverage alcohol. Therefore substitutes are the biggest threat as preference for beer among alcohol beverage drinkers is less but also the low penetration in beer consumption in comparison to international levels offers the potential for substantial and sustainable growth in demand for beer in India for years to come. Rivalry amongst Competitors – Low to Moderate Rivalry is the means through which competitors fight for position by using tactics such as price, competition, advertisement battles, and new product introduction, to lower the profits of competitors in the industry. As stated above CAGR of 11% is expected for beer in the next 5 years due to which many MNCs are eyeing the Indian market. Currently the major rivals for Kingfisher Premium are Budweiser, Carlsberg, Foster and Tiger and for Kingfisher Strong it’s Hayward 2000, Hayward 5000, Palone. SABMiller who came to India by acquiring small breweries and has made its hold as best-selling strong beer brand but still Kingfisher has managed to remain the largest-selling strong beer brand with 29% market share. There are also some small local players hat are in the market but are not much of a threat to Kingfisher. STRATEGIC FIT OF MIST WITH UNITED BREWERIES GROUP The UB Group (United Breweries Group) is a multi-faceted conglomerate with business interests in Beverage Alcohol, Pharmaceuticals, Media, International Trading, Aviation, Fertilizer, Research & Development, and Infrastructure Development with a major focus on the brewery (beer) and alcoholic beverages industry most of which is market ed under the Kingfisher brand. UB Group is already planning to venture into the mineral water segment via the Kingfisher Himalayan Water Brand. Thus strategically thinking Mist will be a perfect fit in the UB Group’s expansion plans. In fact introduction of a soft drink will make UB Group present in all versions of drinks and will be a wonderful way to reach out to customers who admire the Kingfisher brand but do not consume alcoholic beverages. Launching Mist will be a form of line extension and will help it respond to customer’s needs favorably. If we see the attributes of Mist, i. e. adventure, energy, fun and the â€Å"Hat Ke† attitude; it is very much in sync with the existing brand image of UB Group. Mist being a soft drink, it is very necessary to ensure proper distribution of the product. This is where UB Group can use its core competency of having a strong distribution network and bank upon its reputation regarding the stringent quality control measures it follows. Also if we look at the soft drink market, the only direct competitor of Mist is Mountain Dew and the market for soft drinks providing the set of benefits as Mist is in a growth stage. That makes it a perfect moment to introduce a drink like Mist under the Kingfisher brand name. Considering the sync between Mist attributes and Kingfisher’s brand image, we can also use the events held by the UB Group like the Derby, Kingfisher Calendar, IPL matches , functions like the Incredible India Party held last year at Cannes and the TV channel NDTV Good Times to increase awareness about Mist. It can make use of the cricket and Bollywood stars already associated with Kingfisher brand to endorse the product and help build a strong connect with its loyal customers. Added to that serving Mist in the Kingfisher Airlines will be a reat way of making future customers try out the drink. PRODUCT INTRODUCTION Mist is a soft drink that is being launched by UB group under Kingfisher brand. It is a citrus flavoured drink and unlike other soft drinks, it is more carbonated and has high levels of caffeine. MARKETING STRATEGY SEGMENTATION Demographic Segmentation 1. AgeA consumer needs and wants change with age. Hence this segmentation is important for this product. On the bas is of age, we can divide the population into the following categories a. 6-25 years b. Teenagers c. 25 years and above 2. Gender This is an important segmentation since both genders behave and respond differently to same situations. Geographic Segmentation This segment primarily refers to the location of the segments. For our product there will be three segments. a. Urban b. Semi-Urban c. Rural PsychographicSegmentation Here different groups are identified on the basis of personality traits, lifestyle or values. The following segments can be formed: a. Excitement, Adventure seeking, Risk lovers b. Health Conscious . Rebellious d. Fashsionable and stylish For our product, we can begin with demographic segmentation. These segments would be further divided using psychographic segmentation. The product is soft drink, but we will not go in for mass marketing and rather target based on psychographic segmentation. The target would also be different from those of already existing soft drink s. TARGETING Evaluating the above segments on the parameters like Measurable, Substantial, Accessible, Differentiable and Actionable, the target segment for MIST would be: Individuals (both genders) in age range 15-29 in urban areas (this is because the promotional activities would be focused on urban areas only). †¢ Based on market research data, we decided to target people who embrace excitement, adventure and fun. Reasons for choosing this target segment are: †¢ Our market research showed us that there were primarily five different target groups in the market. There was considerable presence of other soft drinks in the other target groups. †¢ Also in urban areas there are very few individuals in the age group 15-29 years who have not heard of Kingfisher; hence this would be our target age group. This segment in India is substantial and would be profitable. †¢ Kingfisher already has large distribution networks for selling its other products in urban areas. Hence there would be little cost of adding distribution channels. †¢ It is also easier to involve people from the aforementioned age group in various promotional activities and also they are easily accessible through internet. So it would be easier reaching across to them. POSITIONING Salient Attributes  · Offer from the Kingfisher brand Higher price for perception of premium quality and difference  · Available only in stylised cans  · Invigorating effect due to higher caffeine  · Tingling taste and flavor  · Selective availability in retail outlets, pubs, clubs, discos and other socializing places Values  · Adventure Seeking  · Thrill  · Different from competition  · Aspiration for youngsters to be associated with Kingfisher brand. Competition Mountain Dew As compared to Mountain Dew, we will po sition MIST as an exclusive brand and it will only be available through selective outlets. We are going for value-based offering that is premium in nature due to higher quality and reflects the values of aspiration for Kingfisher. Coke and Pepsi Both Coke and Pepsi are brands that differentiate themselves on the basis on the endorsements eg. Pepsi targets the youth market through endorsements from young celebrities. Price is not a discriminating factor between these two. We shall charge a higher price as compared to Coke and Pepsi and put forth quality as a prime concern while manufacturing MIST. This should help us differentiating from Coke and Pepsi since they have had troubles in the past regarding their quality. Media Influence  · Extensive promotion schemes across different media (using teasers, events and web portals)  · Advertisement frequency  · Brand endorsement Based on the above factors, our positioning of Mist vis-a-vis its main competitor (Mountain Dew) and other similar lime and lemon flavoured drinks (Coca cola was also included as a reference) has been quantitatively depicted in the cobweb diagram below. Some of the attributes are – 1. Ingredients – Mist is an augmented product over other citrus flavoured drinks, being packed with higher carbonation and caffeine. So, we rated this attribute above the other drinks. 2. Awareness – As Mist is a new product to be launched, we cannot gauge its awareness. However, we intend to bring it to the desired level based on our extensive promotional campaign which will be explained in the Marketing Mix. As of now, awareness is being measured based on the current awareness level for Kingfisher. 3. Availability – Unlike the extensive mass distribution and availability of the other drinks, we intend to have a selective distribution for Mist. 4. Refrigeration – This is based on the amount of refrigeration required and the level of service given by the companies by providing refrigerators. As Mist is selectively available, we intend to provide refrigeration facilities at all points of sale. This refrigerators will be small and exclusively for Mist. It will have eye-popping displays labelled with the title Mist and will be painted in its colours. MARKETING MIX | | |PRODUCT | | | | | | | |Functional |Great taste | | | | | | |Ity |Quench Thirst | | | | | | | | | | |Features |†¢ Invigorating effect due to higher caffeine | | | | | | | |†¢ Tingling taste and flavor | | | | | | |Appearanc |Available in Stylised cans | | | | | | |E | | | | | | | PRICING Competitor based pricing The price of a can of Mountain Dew and other soft drinks is Rs. 20. We may c hoose to price it higher than this since we are not going in for mass marketing but rather selecting a specific target segment. Cost Based pricing Cost Based pricing is integral to establish the lowest point of a new product's price range. By accurately analyzing cost per unit and taking into account a margin that corresponds to the lowest satisfactory return on investment, companies can define a new product's floor price. If the market cannot support this price, then the company must reconsider if the product is feasible. If we take the major cost components as manufacturing, advertising and distribution we can come to a rough estimate of the variable cost of Mist. This will not include the costs associated with machinery installation, R & D of the product and other associated capital expenses. This shall be collected through contribution per can. Using estimates for the major variable cost components we take: i. Advertising Cost per can – Rs. 8 – 10 ii. Manufacturing Cost per can – Rs. 4-5 iii. Administrative Costs and other overheads per can – Rs. 2-3 iv. Distribution Costs – estimated to be Rs. 1 per level Therefore the total cost of producing one can comes out approximately to be Rs. 17-19. Value Based Pricing While some benefits have values that can be readily quantified, others such as brand reputation and premium are more difficult to measure and must be probed using market research. Since we are positioning Mist as a premium brand it should be priced higher than its direct competitor (in this case Mountain Dew) in order for the target group to it as a premium brand. Since a can of a cola costs Rs. 0 then we will price it at Rs. 24 (we are trying simultaneously to take advantage of bundles of five pricing and have the customers perceive it as a premium brand). As shown by the market research, customers are willing to pay more for a product like Mist. Moreover, considering the aspiration value of the produc t and the parent company, we have decided to follow value based pricing. PROMOTION According to the positioning of the Mist, a promotional campaign will be designed to create awareness and pull in the market. AIDA model will be followed for the promotional campaign. The steps taken in each stage will make consumers to â€Å"Think, feel and do†.